How do variations in solar irradiance and volcanic activity contribute to short-term and long-term climate variability, and how are these natural forcings integrated into climate models?

Variations in solar irradiance and volcanic activity significantly affect climate by altering the energy balance. Solar irradiance changes influence global temperatures, while volcanic eruptions inject aerosols into the stratosphere, reflecting sunlight and cooling the Earth. These natural forcings are integrated into climate models through detailed radiative transfer calculations and historical records, helping to differentiate natural variability from anthropogenic effects and improve climate predictions.