The greenhouse effect is a natural process that regulates Earth’s climate by trapping heat energy in the atmosphere. Solar radiation penetrates the Earth’s atmosphere and warms the surface. As the Earth’s surface emits infrared radiation, greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb and re-emit this energy, trapping heat and warming the lower atmosphere and surface temperatures. Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes, have increased the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, intensifying the greenhouse effect and leading to anthropogenic climate change.

Renewable energy sources include solar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal, and biomass energy. Solar energy technologies, such as photovoltaic (PV) panels and solar thermal systems, capture sunlight and convert it into electricity or heat. Wind energy technologies, such as wind turbines, harness the kinetic energy of wind movement to generate electricity. Hydroelectric power plants utilize the gravitational potential energy of water stored in dams or flowing in rivers to drive turbines and produce electricity. Geothermal energy technologies extract heat from the Earth’s interior to generate electricity or provide direct heating and cooling. Biomass energy technologies utilize organic matter, such as wood, crop residues, or animal waste, to produce biofuels or generate heat and electricity through combustion or biochemical processes.

Soil formation is influenced by several factors, including parent material, climate, topography, organisms, and time. Parent material refers to the underlying geological material from which soil develops, such as bedrock or sedimentary deposits. Climate, including temperature and precipitation, influences the rate of weathering and decomposition, affecting soil development. Topography affects soil erosion, drainage, and deposition processes, leading to variations in soil depth and composition. Organisms such as plants, animals, and microorganisms contribute to soil formation through organic matter decomposition, root growth, and soil bioturbation. Over time, these factors interact to produce distinct soil types with characteristic properties such as texture, structure, fertility, and soil horizons.

Rocks on Earth are classified into three main types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava, either beneath the Earth’s surface (intrusive) or on the surface (extrusive). Sedimentary rocks form through the accumulation, compaction, and cementation of sediments derived from weathering and erosion of pre-existing rocks. Metamorphic rocks form from the alteration of existing rocks under conditions of high heat and pressure, without melting, leading to recrystallization and the development of new mineral assemblages.

Climate change on Earth is influenced by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors. Natural processes, including volcanic eruptions, solar radiation variations, and orbital variations, have historically driven climate fluctuations. However, human activities, such as deforestation, fossil fuel combustion, and industrial emissions, have intensified greenhouse gas concentrations, leading to accelerated warming, altered precipitation patterns, and rising sea levels.